History of Alexandria Ancient and Medieval Period

Founded in 332 B.C. by Alexander the Great, Alexandria was intended to supersede Naucratis (q.v.) as a Greek centre in Egypt, and to be the link between Macedonia and the rich Nile Valley. If such a city was to be on the Egyptian coast, there was only one possible site, behind the screen of the Pharos island and removed from the silt thrown out by Nile mouths. An Egyptian townlet, Rhacotis, already stood on the shore and was a resort of fishermen and pirates. Behind it (according to the Alexandrian treatise, known as pseudo-Callisthenes) were five native villages scattered along the strip between Lake Mareotis and the sea. Alexander occupied Pharos, and had a walled city marked out by Deinocrates on the mainland to include Rhacotis. A few months later he left Egypt for the East and never returned to his city; but his corpse was ultimately entombed there. His viceroy, Cleomenes, continued the creation of Alexandria. The Heptastadium, however, and the mainland quarters seem to have been mainly Ptolemaic work. Inheriting the trade of ruined Tyre and becoming the centre of the new commerce between Europe and the Arabian and Indian East, the city grew in less than a century to be larger than Carthage; and for some centuries more it had to acknowledge no superior but Rome. It was a centre not only of Hellenism but of Semitism, and the greatest Jewish city in the world. There the Septuagint was produced. The early Ptolemies kept it in order and fostered the development of its museum into the leading Greek university; but they were careful to maintain the distinction of its population into three nations, Macedonian (i.e. Greek), Jew and Egyptian. From this division arose much of the later turbulence which began to manifest itself under Ptolemy Philopater. Nominally a free Greek city, Alexandria retained its senate to Roman times; and indeed the judicial functions of that body were restored by Septimius Severus, after temporary abolition by Augustus. The city passed formally under Roman jurisdiction in 80 B.C., according to the will of Ptolemy Alexander: but it had been under Roman influence for more than a hundred years previously. There Julius Caesar dallied with Cleopatra in 47 B.C. and was mobbed by the rabble; there his example was followed by Antony, for whose favour the city paid dear to Octavian, who placed over it a prefect from the imperial household. Alexandria seems from this time to have regained its old prosperity, commanding, as it did, an important granary of Rome. This latter fact, doubtless, was one of the chief reasons which induced Augustus to place it directly under the imperial power. In A.D. 215 the emperor Caracalla visited the city; and, in order to repay some insulting satires that the inhabitants had made upon him, he commanded his troops to put to death all youths capable of bearing arms. This brutal order seems to have been carried out even beyond the letter, for a general massacre was the result. Not withstanding this terrible disaster, Alexandria soon recovered its former splendour, and for some time longer was esteemed the first city of the world after Rome. Even as its main historical importance had formerly sprung from pagan learning, so now it acquired fresh importance as a centre of Christian theology and church government. There Arianism was formulated and there Athanasius, the great opponent of both heresy and pagan rcaction, worked and triumphed. As native influences, however, began to reassert themselves in the Nile valley, Alexandria gradually became an alien city, more and more detached from Egypt; and, losing much of its commerce as the peace of the empire broke up during the 3rd century A.D., it declined fast in population and splendour. The Brucheum, and Jewish quarters were desolate in the 5th century, and the central monuments, the Soma and Museum, fallen to ruin. This document is part of an article on Alexandria from the 1911 edition of an encyclopedia that is out of copyright here in the U.S. The article is in the public domain, and you may copy, download, print and distribute this work as you see fit. Every effort has been made to present this text accurately and cleanly, but no guarantees are made against errors. Neither N.S. Gill nor About may be held liable for any problems you experience with the text version or with any electronic form of this document. On the mainland life seems to have centred in the vicinity of the Serapeum and Caesareum, both become Christian churches: but the Pharos and Heptastadium quarters remained populous and intact. In 616 it was taken by Chosroes, king of Persia; and in 640 by the Arabians, under Amr, after a siege that lasted fourteen months, during which Heraclius, the emperor of Constantinople, did not send a single ship to its assistance. Notwithstanding the losses that the city had sustained, Amr was able to write to his master, the caliph Omar, that he had taken a city containing 4000 palaces, 4000 baths, 12,000 dealers in fresh oil, 12,000 gardeners, 40,000 Jews who pay tribute, 400 theatres or places of amusement. The story of the destruction of the library by the Arabs is first told by Bar-hebraeus (Abulfaragius), a Christian writer who lived six centuries later; and it is of very doubtful authority. It is highly improbable that many of the 700,000 volumes collected by the Ptolemies remained at the time of the Arab conquest, when the various calamities of Alexandria from the time of Caesar to that of Diocletian are considered, together with the disgraceful pillage of the library in A.D. 389 under the rule of the Christian bishop, Theophilus, acting on Theodosius decree concerning pagan monumcnts (see LIBRARIES: Ancient History). The story of Abulfaragius runs as follows:-- John the Grammarian, a famous Peripatetic philosopher, being in Alexandria at the time of its capture, and in high favour with Amr, begged that he would give him the royal library. Amr told him that it was not in his power to grant such a request, but promised to write to the caliph for his consent. Omar, on hearing the request of his general, is said to have replied that if those books contained the same doctrine with the Koran, they could be of no use, since the Koran contained all necessary truths; but if they contained anything contrary to that book, they ought to be destroyed; and therefore, whatever their contents were, he ordered them to be burnt. Pursuant to this order, they were distributed among the public baths, of which there was a large number in the city, where, for six months, they served to supply the fires. Shortly after its capture Alexandria again fell into the hands of the Greeks, who took advantage of Amrs absence with the greater portion of his army. On hearing what had happened, however, Amr returned, and quickly regained possession of the city. About the year 646 Amr was deprived of his government by the caliph Othman. The Egyptians, by whom Amr was greatly beloved, were so much dissatisfied by this act, and even showed such a tendency to revolt, that the Greek emperor determined to make an effort to reduce Alexandria. The attempt proved perfectly successful. The caliph, perceiving his mistake, immediately restored Amr, who, on his arrival in Egypt, drove the Greeks within the walls of Alexandria, but was only able to capture the city after a most obstinate resistance by the defenders. This so exasperated him that he completely demolished its fortifications, although he seems to have spared the lives of the inhabitants as far as lay in his power. Alexandria now rapidly declined i n importance. The building of Cairo in 969, and, above all, the discovery of the route to the East by the Cape of Good Hope in 1498, nearly ruined its commerce; the canal, which supplied it with Nile water, became blocked; and although it remained a principal Egyptian port, at which most European visitors in the Mameluke and Ottoman periods landed, we hear little of it until about the beginning of the 19th century. Alexandria figured prominently in the military operations of Napoleons Egyptian expedition of 1798. The French troops stormed the city on the 2nd of July 1798, and it remained in their hands until the arrival of the British expedition of 1801. The battle of Alexandria, fought on the 21st of March of that year, between the French army under General Menou and the British expeditionary corps under Sir Ralph Abercromby, took place near the ruins of Nicopohs, on the narrow spit of land between the sea and Lake Aboukir, along which the British troops had advanced towards Alexandria after the actions of Aboukir on the 8th and Mandora on the 13th. This document is part of an article on Alexandria from the 1911 edition of an encyclopedia that is out of copyright here in the U.S. The article is in the public domain, and you may copy, download, print and distribute this work as you see fit. Every effort has been made to present this text accurately and cleanly, but no guarantees are made against errors. Neither N.S. Gill nor About may be held liable for any problems you experience with the text version or with any electronic form of this document.

Who are the homeless Will they always be with us Free Essays

Who are the homelessWill they always be with us? Introduction The aim of the following essay will be to construct a profile of who the ‘homeless’ people are and show how the changes in governmental policy on housing and tackling homelessness have proven counterproductive over the long run, leading to a state where the homeless and their problems have become an inseparable part of contemporary society. To begin with, the ‘homeless’ are a broad social group, ranging from temporary sofa surfers to street sleepers. Indeed, many studies seem to concentrate their interventions on this street population rather than the more significant group known as ‘hidden homeless’ who stay with family/friends (Hilton and Dejong, 2010). We will write a custom essay sample on Who are the homeless? Will they always be with us? or any similar topic only for you Order Now In general, many are a potentially chaotic group who struggle in decision making, and who have or experience (a combination of) relationship difficulties, drug and/or alcohol problems, mental health issues and are often in significant debt. The process by which many become ‘homeless’ can often be through temporary stays with friends or family, which depending on circumstances, can drift into street sleeping if those networks are exhausted (Briggs. 2012). Many also lose their dignity and self-respect in this process which increases their sense of shame, and this makes them quite a difficult group to work with should their circumstances deteriorate. This is why by the time many of those who live on the streets come to the attention of various social services, their problems, including financial, social, individual and emotional are already incestuously entangled and difficult to manage (Briggs et al., 2009). Many develop increasingly unpredictable lifestyles and are sent from service to service; more often than not, they can’t manage this and drift further from contact from services and develop increasingly fatalistic thinking. It is often at this stage that many become targets of punitive systems which often work against their complex circumstances (Leibow, 1993) and, since the 1990s, subject to social control through aggressive social policies and law enforcement because they are seen as blighting community life (Matthews et al., 2007; Matthews and Briggs, 2008; O’Connor, 2007). The inclination towards punishing the homeless population for deviance and transgression is one that is deeply embedded within the fabric of the British society (Carlen, 1996). Increasingly, a tendency to blame the economically and socially marginalized sections of society for their own problem has been noted (Jordan, 1996) and the popular image of these in the public imagination has changed little over time (ibid.). The presence of the homeless population has been rendered as being ‘out of place’ in public space, as it disturbs the otherwise aesthetic and economically ‘revitalised’ urban landscape (Cresswell, 1996; Mair, 1986; Ruddick, 1996; Snow and Anderson, 1993). This has led to the exclusion of the homeless from ‘prime’ city space (Duncan, 1983) because of their ‘spoiled identities’ (Goffman, 1968) and the fear that their existence might in some way infect the former or its inhabitants. This has required the ‘purificatio n’ of public space (Sibley, 1995) either through the criminalisation of basic street survival strategies (Mitchell, 1997) or the re-design of inner-city environment (Soja, 2000). Arguably, this has also led to changes in the way which the homeless are treated. From an earlier ‘malignant neglect’ (Wolch and Dear, 1993) this has grown into a large-scale punitive regime, making life on the streets next to impossible unless one is criminalised and is processed through the criminal justice apparatus (Mitchell, 2001). Having outlined several of the problems which the homeless population has, the next section will provide an overview of the services available to the homeless. The homeless and the services available to them Parallel to the social exclusion of the homeless, a tendency of increasing charitable care has been documented – an increased number of night shelters, hostels and day centres as to provide sustenance and temporary shelter for the disadvantaged (MacLeod, 2002). In the UK, as the British government and urban managers have adopted an increasingly aggressive stance towards street homeless people, this had led to a significant increase in the number of night shelters and ‘direct access’ hostels (May et al. 2005; May et al. 2006). These represent ‘spaces of care’ (Conradson, 2003) in an otherwise hostile environment (Parr, 2000, 2003) and their numbers have been on the increase over the past two decades (Fyfe and Milligan, 2003) as a result of the social welfare restructuring and the decline of statutory service provision for marginalised groups. Even though under the New Labour substantial improvements were made in terms of the services provided and a si gnificant reduction in the number of rough sleepers was made, those remaining on the streets were increasingly perceived as an anti-social behaviour problem (Fitzpatrick and Jones, 2005). What is more disturbing, however, is that among those living on the streets, drug use seems to be prevalent and widespread (Fountain et al. 2003). But even in cases there the homeless have had access to services – day centres or night shelters, it appears that in some circumstances, these might also have a damaging effect (Jones, 1999; Fitzpatrick and Kennedy, 2000; Jones and Higate, 2000). The day centres, to begin with, have been one of the most relied-on services by both the ‘visible’ and ‘invisible’ homeless people (those living on the streets and those staying in hostels, night shelters, relatives or friends) (Llewellin and Murdoch, 1996; Reeve and Coward, 2004; Robinson and Coward, 2003). Historically, the responsibility for operating these and the provision of emergency accommodation for single homeless people has been placed on the voluntary sector as the neo-liberal form of governance took over the welfare state and a crisis of street homelessness ensued (Saunders, 1986; Anderson, 1993). Created as an alternative to the hostels, emergency accommodation also has its own problems to resolve. Shelters, for example, are an important part of the suburban social service delivery system, as they meet the short-term needs of the homeless. At the same time, however, such programs ultimately set up some of the most vulnerable to fail, especially those addicted to alcohol and drugs (Hick-Coolick et al. 2007). In some cases, the shelters could also be perceived as a resemblance of ‘total institutions’ (Goffman, 1961) as far as the deterioration of personhood and self-autonomy is concerned (DeWard and Moe, 2010). In cases where this type of emergency accommodation has succeeded in assisting homeless people with finding accommodation, it has been documented that the housing costs paid by the formerly homeless can be quite high,(Glisson et al. 2001). But the provision of housing services, and places at hostels in particular can at times be inadequate and subject to strict regulation, often leading to the exclusion of those most at risk(Carter, 1999; Fitzpatrick and Kennedy, 2000). To summarise this section, even though the services provided to the homeless by the non-governmental sector serve as a safety-net in order to prevent further marginalisation and social exclusion, their operation too needs to be reformed, as in many cases it is counter-productive. Therefore, their approach and strategy should be coordinated by a national policy which takes tackling homelessness at heart. Unfortunately, as the following section of this paper will show, the current policy approach adopted by the Coalition government has done exactly the opposite – it has laid the foundation for a future social crisis. The contemporary governmental policy on housing and its impact on homelessness In the wake of the global financial crisis, the newly elected Conservative-Liberal Coalition Government announced ?2.5 billion of cuts in housing benefit, most of which affect LHA recipients, to be introduced over a three-year period from April 2011. These cuts will progressively exacerbate the affordability problems faced by many private tenants in receipt of the LHA. The government has implicitly acknowledged that the cuts are likely to produce financial hardship and explicitly accepted that they may result in increased overcrowding and homelessness (DWP, 2010). Despite the fact the housing market has had a significant impact on the reshaping of the welfare state (Malpass, 2008; Lowe, 2004; Malpass, 2005; Mullins and Murie, 2006), the current governmental policy will likely have serious long-term negative effects on the poorest sections of the population, for whom welfare benefits, social housing and the private rented sector have played the role of a safety net (The Guardian, 26th May 2010; Fitzpartick and Pawson, 2007; Kemp, 2011; Hills, 2007; Kemp, 2004). According to the DCLG, between July 1st and 30th Sept 2012, 13,890 were accepted as owed a main homeless duty – an increase of 11% since the referral for the same period in the previous year. In temporary accommodation, 52,960 households were accepted until 30th Sept 2012, an increase of 8% when compared to the previous year. The Number of households in BB hotels rose to 4,350, an increase of 29% since the previous year (DCLG, 2012). The housing charity Shelter also released statistics that indicate a sharp increase in demand for help among people who are at risk of being homeless – the organisation has seen an increase of 80% over a three-year period in the number of people who have used its hotline. Of these, 23,086 were assisted in some way by the hotline in the 12 month period to the end of September 2012, compared with 12,852 in the twelve month period leading up to September 2010 (Evening Standard, 30th Nov 2012). The recession has also had an impact on the mainstream housing market. A report by Shelter (2013) indicates that the number of people who have experienced difficulties in paying their rent or mortgage each month has risen by 44% over the past year, reaching 7.8million. Of these, short of a million people used payday loans in order to pay their rent or mortgage and another 2.8 million people used an unauthorised overdraft in order to pay their rent or mortgage, with 10% of all doing this every month. With this in mind and the cuts in government funding to councils, it is hardly surprising why London is experiencing such as severe crisis in terms of housing, a problem which has led to the adoption of radical measures. A research by the Guardian (4th Nov 2012) showed that many councils in the metropolis are acquiring properties across the UK for vulnerable families – among those areas being Luton, Windsor Slough, Margate and as far away as Manchester, Derby, Hull and Birmingham. Similar are the findings of a report by the Child Poverty Action Group and Lasa, which predicts that 124,480 London households will be hit by a combination of Local Housing Allowance and under-occupational penalties. Seventeen of all London councils were already in the process of outsourcing families from the metropolis and had secured or were considering temporary accommodation outside of London for future use. Among these were Kensington and Chelsea, which had moved homeless families to Manchester and Slough; Waltham Forest, which acquired properties in Luton, Margate and Harlow; Brent, which had relocated several households to Hastings; Tower Hamlets, which had relocated a handful of families to Northampton; Hackney, which was also ‘reluctantly looking to procure accommodation outside London’ (Landlord Today, 6th Nov 2012) and Newham (Newham LBC, 5th Nov 2012). The restricted funding of councils has led to a significant reliance on the third sector to provide a temporary solution to the problem by transferring the homeless in other boroughs and to the hands of private landlords. Some of the boroughs, however, have been hit worse than others, or so it seems. The assumption that many asylum seekers and economic migrants move to Croydon has led to the transfer of ‘problematic populations’ into another borough – Lewisham, which is in the process of building more council homes in order to meet the demand (East London Lines, 14th July, 2012). The total number of homeless families in Croydon by the end of 2011 was 1,600, of which 300 were living in BB accommodation (East London Lines, 29th Nov 2011). If these statistics are correct, then, a third of all homeless families that are put in BB for longer than the recommended six-week period in London are situated in a single borough! (London 24, 30th Jan 2013). What has caused the problemAccording to councils, it is the withdrawal of private landlords from the social housing market which has forced them to place more and more homeless people in bed and breakfast accommodation (24 Dash, 30th Jan 2013). Thus, the search for affordable housing outside the boroughs is justified, as the budget allocated for temporary housing cannot be stretched to cover an increasing demand – in Croydon, the number of families living in temporary accommodation has increased by 30%, compared to an overall 5% increase in London over the past year (East London Lines, 23rd Jan 2013). Even though some attempts are made to improve the current situation – bringing abandoned properties back in use or the conversion of redundant council properties (The Information Daily, 22nd Jan 2013), such measures will hardly solve anything in the long-term, especially when working families, ex-servicemen, and community volunteers are considered of priority need for council accommodation, and not the homeless or the destitute (Guardian, 9th Nov 2012). In the words of Kay Boycott, the CEO of Shelter, ‘the fact that councils are offering people homes hundreds of miles away – uprooting families from schools, communities and jobs – is testament to the scale of London’s housing crisis’ (East London Lines, 29th Nov 2011). Conclusion The aim of this essay was to provide an overview of the profile of homeless people, draw attention to their problems and demonstrate how the recent changes in governmental policy in terms of housing and welfare provision have not provided a solution to homelessness, but have rather contributed to the problem, ultimately leading to a state where the homeless and their problems have become an inseparable part of contemporary society. As it was demonstrated, the ‘homeless’ as a social group has been considered a problematic section of society for a significant period of time. Although a safety-net of services exists and the majority of them are provided by the third sector, the pressure for meeting targets in order to secure funding could potentially lead to excluding those, who are considered to be of ‘high risk’. The current strategy adopted by the Coalition government has done little to tackle any of the causes which lead to homelessness, but has rather adop ted a reactive approach, which most likely will prove to be counterproductive in the long run (WCC, 2013). In order for the problem of homelessness to be successfully resolved, however, a new approach should be adopted, one that is drawn from good practice, informed by high quality research and does not prioritise the needs of its beneficiaries (in this case the homeless) over populist discourses. Bibliography 24 Dash, 30th Jan 2013. Available at: http://www.24dash.com/news/housing/2013-01-30-Give-private-landlords-tax-relief-to-relieve-homelessness-crisis Anderson, I. (1993) Housing policy and street homelessness in Britain. Housing Studies 8(1): 17-28. Briggs, D. (2012) Crack cocaine users: High Society and Low Life in South London, London: Routledge. Briggs, D. Rhodes, T., Marks, D., Kimber, J., Holloway, G., and Jones, S. (2009) ‘Injecting drug use, unstable housing, and the scope for structural interventions’ in Drugs, Education, Prevention and Policy, Vol 15 (5): 436-450. Carlen, P. (1996) Jigsaw: a Political Criminology of Youth Homelessness. Buckingham: Open University Press. Carter, M. (1999), Falling Off The First Rung: Tackling Exclusions from Birmingham’s Direct Access Hostels, Birmingham: Birmingham’s Homeless and Roofless Partnership. Conradson, D. (2003) Spaces of care in the city: the place of a community drop-in centre. Social and Cultural Geography, Vol. 4: 507-525. Cresswell, T. (1996) In Place/Out of Place: Geography, Identity and Transgression. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Department for Communities and Local Government, 2012. Statutory Homelessness. DeWard, S. and Moe, A. (2010) ‘Like a prison!’ Homeless women’s narratives of surviving shelter. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, Vol. 37(1): 115-135. Duncan, J. (1983) Men without property: the tramp’s classification and use of urban space (pp.86-102), in Lake, R. W. (ed) Readings in Urban Analysis: Perspectives on Urban Form and Structure. New Brunswick, NJ: Centre for Urban Policy Research. DWP (2010) The Local Authority Omnibus Survey – Wave 20, August 2010. East London Lines, 29th Nov 2011. Available at: http://www.eastlondonlines.co.uk/2011/11/croydon-council-plans-to-relocate-homeless-is-refuted-by-northern-councils-who-dont-have-surplus-housing/ East London Lines, 14th July, 2012. Available at: http://www.eastlondonlines.co.uk/2012/07/croydon-moves-homeless-out-of-borough-as-lewisham-builds-new-homes/ East London Lines, 23rd Jan 2013. 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(2007) Assessment of the Outcomes of Anti-Social Behaviour Orders, Bristol: Policy Press. Matthews, R., and Briggs, D. (2008) ‘Lost in Translation: Interpreting and implementing anti-social behaviour strategies’ in P. Squires (Ed) ASBO Nation: The Criminalisation of Nuisance (pp 87-100), Bristol: Policy Press. May, J., Cloke, P. Johnsen, S. (2006) Shelters at the margins : New Labour and the changing state of emergency accommodation for single homeless people in Britain. Policy Politics, Vol.34(4): 711–29. May, J., Johnsen, S. and Cloke, P. (2005) Re-phasing neo-liberalism: New Labour and Britain’s crisis of street homelessness. Antipode 37 (4): 703-30 Mitchell, D. (1997) The annihilation of space by law: the roots and implications of anti-homeless laws in the United States. Antipode Vol. 29: 303-336. Mitchell, D. (2001) Postmodern geographical praxisThe postmodern impulse and the way against the homeless in the ‘‘post-justice’’ city (pp. 57-92), in Minca, C. (ed) Postmodern Geography: Theory and Praxis. London: Blackwell. Mullins, D. and Murie, A. (2006) Housing policy in the UK. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Newham LBC, 5th Nov 2012. Available at: http://www.lbc.co.uk/councils-ship-homeless-families-out-of-london-62375 O’Connor, E. (2007) The Cruel and Unusual Criminalization of Homelessness: Factoring Individual Accountability into the Proportionality Principle. Texas Journal on Civil Liberties Civil Rights, 12: 233-75. Parr, H. (2000) Interpreting the ‘hidden social geographies’ of mental health: ethnographies of inclusion and exclusion in semi-institutional places. Health and Place Vol. 6: 225-237. Parr, H. (2003) Medical geography: care and caring. Progress in Human Geography 27: 212-221. Reeve, K. and Coward, S. (2004) Life on the Margins: The Experiences of Homeless People Living in Squats. London: Crisis and the Countryside Agency. Robinson, D. and Coward, S. (2003) Your Place, Not Mine: The Experiences of Homeless People Staying with Family and Friends. London: Crisis and the Countryside Agency. Ruddick, S. (1996) Young and Homeless in Hollywood: Mapping Social Identities. London: Routledge. Saunders, B. (1986) Homeless Young People in Britain: the contribution of the voluntary sector. London: Bedford Square Press. Shelter, 2013. Available at: http://england.shelter.org.uk/news/january_2013/1.4_million_britons_falling_behind_with_the_rent_or_mortgage Sibley, D. (1995) Geographies of Exclusion. London: Routledge. Snow, D. A. and Anderson, L. (1993) Down on Their Luck: A Study of Homeless Street People. Berkeley: University of California Press. Soja, E. (2000) Post-metropolis: Critical Studies of Cities and Regions. Oxford: Blackwell. The Guardian, 26th May, 2010. Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/politics/2010/may/26/coalition-welfare-reforms-duncan-smith The Guardian, 9th Nov 2012. Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2012/nov/09/deserving-families-council-housing-priority The Information Daily, 22nd Jan 2013. Available at: http://www.theinformationdaily.com/2013/01/22/croydon-council-announce-plans-to-tackle-london-homelessness Westminster City Council (2013) Rough Sleeping Strategy 2013 – 2016. Available at: http://transact.westminster.gov.uk/docstores/publications_store/13%20to%2016%20RS%20Strategy%20DRAFT.pdf Wolch, J. and Dear, M. (1993) Malign Neglect: Homelessness in an American City. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. How to cite Who are the homeless? Will they always be with us?, Essay examples

Surrogate Decision Making

Question: Discuss about the Surrogate Decision Making. Answer: Introduction Every human being wishes to lead a normal life without disability. One reason why no one wants to be disabled is because of shame. Many at times, the society has been looking down upon the disabled because, unlike the rest of the people, the disabled are perceived as less important people who have no significant contributions to make to the community. This is exactly what befalls amputees after losing a limb. Apart from enduring agonizing pains, the amputees battle stress and trauma necessitated by the feeling of prejudice, neglect and loss of independence (Parvaneh, Grewal, Grewal, Menzies, Talal, Armstrong, Sternberg Najafi 2014). So, to improve the living conditions of the amputees, it is upon the society to come up and do something. This is why we, as an organization, have decided to inaugurate this project to challenge the status quo. However, to do so, we need a full support of all the concerned stakeholders. Project Objectives The major objective of this project is to introduce a highly developed artificial limb to improve the quality of life of the amputees. The organization is deeply concerned about the shame and stereotypes put on the amputees by the society as a result of limb losses. This is what the organization will put all the efforts to eradicate. Approach and Methods To ultimately address the plight of the amputees is not a simple task. It requires dedication, commitment and team work (Tanosaki, Shimizu, Lian, Jurchak Patel 2014). Since the main objective of the project is to bring happiness to the amputees, it is reasonable that we will adopt the following approach: Develop a device called LimbMaster that will be a break from the past. For a very long time, amputees have had to use artificial limbs that make them uncomfortable because of poor pain reduction and incorrect fitness (Yoo 2014). The poor status of the artificial limbs has been causing a lot of trauma to the amputees. However, with the coming of this project, amputees will get a lifetime opportunity to transform and improve the quality of their lives by using computer technology to design, develop and supply the easy-to-use, comfortable, safe and correctly fitted artificial limbs-LimbMaster (Newcombe, Dewar, Blunn Fromme 2013). Proposed Budget for LimbMaster ITEM COST (A$) Materials 400,000 Salaries and Wages 150,000 Computers and Software 150,000 Research 150,000 Marketing and Public Awareness 100,000 Logistics 40,000 Others 10,000 TOTAL 1,000,000 References Gaunaurd, I., Spaulding, S.E., Amtmann, D., Salem, R., Gailey, R., Morgan, S.J. Hafner, B.J., 2015. Use of and confidence in administering outcome measures among clinical prosthetists: Results from a national survey and mixed-methods training program. Prosthetics and orthotics international, 39(4), pp.314-321. Newcombe, L., Dewar, M., Blunn, G.W. and Fromme, P., 2013. Effect of amputation level on the stress transferred to the femur by an artificial limb directly attached to the bone. Medical engineering physics, 35(12), pp.1744-1753. Parvaneh, S., Grewal, G.S., Grewal, E., Menzies, R.A., Talal, T.K., Armstrong, D.G., Sternberg, E. Najafi, B., 2014. Stressing the dressing: Assessing stress during wound care in real-time using wearable sensors. Wound Medicine, 4, pp.21-26. Tanosaki, M., Shimizu, N., Lian, C.G., Jurchak, M. Patel, V., 2014. Purpura Fulminans Managed with Multi-Limb Amputation: Substituted Judgment and Surrogate Decision-Making in the Surgical Management of Necrotizing Soft Tissue Infections. Surgical infections, 15(6), pp.853-856. Yoo, S., 2014. Complications following an amputation. Physical medicine and rehabilitation clinics of North America, 25(1), pp.169-178.

History Of Baseball Essays (1008 words) - Jackie Robinson

History Of Baseball History of Baseball Baseball seems always to have lived more in myth that in history. Children in England and the United States had been playing variants of the game for years such as rounders, one o cat, and base. In 1845, some young men in Manhattan organized themselves into the Knickerbockers BaseBall Club and wrote down the rules of the game they were playing. Twenty years later dozens of baseball clubs in New York and Brooklyn, and their journalist brethren, had made what they called the national pastime more popular than cricket, and the metropolis had become the countrys first baseball powerhouse. As baseball clubs were transformed into entertainment businesses and instruments of civic boosterism, so grew their need for first-rate players who could attract paying crowds. The remarkable undefeatable season of the national touring Cincinnati Red Stockings in 1869 paved the way for baseballs full-blown professionalization in the 1876 formation of the National League of Professional Base Ball Clubs. Although distinctions between players and their clubs (now really small businesses) had been hardening for years, the National League formalized the division, which has continued until today. (Leal, 7-27) Baseball soon outdistanced other spectator sports in popularity and contributed to the sports boom of the 1880s and 1890s. Late nineteenth-century baseball resembled the Gilded Age business world. Owners moved the clubs frequently, while rival leagues sprung up and competed for players and spectators. The National League either defeated its opponents outright or incorporated them into a subordinate national structure of minor leagues. Not until 1901 was the National League force to accept the American League, the only other surviving major league. Leagues controlled access to spectators by granting franchises. Owners and leagues controlled the players through labor practices that combined elements of chattel slavery (the infamous reserve rule) and freewheeling industrial capitalism: blacklisting, fines, salary limits, and reductions, even the use of Pinkerton spies. The reserve clause, initiated in 1879 and inserted into every players contract, gave his employer the right to reserve his services for the following year, unless the player was traded, sold, or released from his contract. Players fought the reserve rule, most notably when the Brotherhood of Professional BaseBall Players launched its own Players League in 1890. When the players financial backers sold them out to the National League, baseball owners triumphed and ruled organized baseball virtually unchallenged for eighty-five years. They were aided by a series of bizarre Supreme Court rulings that baseball was not interstate commerce and therefore not bound by federal antitrust law. In 1975 and arbitrator ruled that the reserved clause applied for only one year and players, as free agents, regained their negotiating power; salaries quickly reached unheard-of levels. Owners retaliated in 1981 but were soundly defeated by a players strike. (Smith, 124) Then in the late 1980s they conspired (illegally, an arbitrator held) to limit salary offers to free agents. After a twenty-year period of franchise movement, league expansions, and the creation of divisions within leagues, baseball became organizationally stable again in the late 1970s. Attendance grew dramatically throughout the 1980s, more people attended major league baseball games (over 50 million per year at the end of the decade) than at any other time in the games history. Baseball has been Americas most popular sport for so long mainly because it has successfully straddled some of the nations most important cultural divisions. Though it was born among the respectable working class and sporting middle class, the games cultural antecedents lay in the boisterous street culture of saloon-based volunteer fire companies, militias, theater partisans, street gangs, and political factions. The National League explicitly appealed to more middle-class audiences by requiring its teams t o charge fifty cents, ban the sale of alcohol, and refuse to play Sundays. ( Leal ,44) The rival American Association appealed to immigrant and working class audiences by charging a quarter, selling liquor, and playing Sunday ball. Despite the outrage with which baseball officials and writers treat baseballs occasional betting scandals (in 1865 and 1877 as well as more famously in the 1919 Black Sox scandal and the 1989 banishment of Pete Rose), the game has never been completely free of the sporting underworld of gambling and low life. Even though

3 Steps to Acing Your Upcoming Group Interview

3 Steps to Acing Your Upcoming Group Interview You’ve been asked in for a panel interview. Maybe you’re intimidated. Maybe terrified. Maybe you’re not even sure you know what that actually entails. Whatever your level of trepidation, here are three easy steps to getting through your panel interview calmly and in one piece. Step 1: BEFOREYou have the right to ask who will be on your panel. Do this. Then research each panel member to the best of your ability. You’ll be able to figure out quite a bit and prepare better for what each might be most keen to ask you. What does this particular group of people tell you about what the company is trying to assess?You can also ask how long (roughly) the interview should last. This will give you a good feeling for how much back-and-forth discussion will be possible, how much space you’ll be given to ask questions, how long your answers can be, etc.Step 2: DURINGTreat each person on the panel like a person- not just another nameless face. This is not an imper sonal wall asking you questions. Each interviewer on your panel is another opportunity to make a human connection and convince that many more people in the company what a great fit you would be.Be sure to take note of everybody’s name as they are introduced. Write each one down if that helps you remember. When answering questions, speak directly to the individual who asked, but then try and broaden your answer out to make the rest of the panel feel included in the discussion.Step 3: AFTERYou’ve learned their names and made an effort to connect with each panel member- now thank each one of them sincerely with  solid eye contact and a quality handshake. After that, it’s the usual post-interview follow-up procedure. But remember that you need to write one thank you note for each panel member. It seems like a pain, but it’s these little touches that will help set you apart.The panel interview: 6 tips for before, during, and after

Strategic management practise Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words - 1

Strategic management practise - Assignment Example The purpose of this report is to conduct a strategic audit of a real-life organization and on the basis of strategic issues being faced by the organization, the goals, actions and key elements of performance management system to develop strategy are discussed in this organizational context. The report has four major sections, wherein the first section, the strategic issues are identified by employing a strategic audit. The strategic analysis is performed with the help of some strategic tools, such as PESTEL Analysis, SWOT Analysis, and Porter’s five forces model. Then to address these issues, the goals are set in the context of the organization in the second section. Thirdly, the actions are recommended which the organization should take. A strategy statement is also summarized in this regard. In the last section, the key elements of the performance management system are elaborated, which are important to develop the strategy for the organization. To address the purpose of the report, FedEx Corporation is selected. The FedEx Corporation was originated in 1971 by Frederick Smith, where its previous name was Federal Express, centered in Little Rock, Arkansas, and headquartered in Memphis, Tenn. The founder’s business visions have been esteemed all over the years, who always concentrated on providing superior customer services than rivals. During the start of the company, after fronting a number of funding problems, the company struggled and strived for its survival. The company entered into the initial public offerings in 1998, and its renowned itself as the name of FedEx Corporation in 2000 (FedEx Co., 2014). The FedEx Corporation is involved in delivery and shipping services mainly, and also it has developed a portfolio of business. It delivers different services to the different segments of the customers, which are business consulting services or support solutions, logistics services, e-commerce, and mainly

Marketing Plan -marketing stratgy-target customer Essay

Marketing Plan -marketing stratgy-target customer - Essay Example The first step is conducting a market research for the smart home control system (Brethauer, 9). It is important to know who is using the product, who will be interested in the product, as well as the actual people who will purchase the product, and to whom the control systems will benefit. Likewise, an adjustment should be done based on the market results. Moreover, an investigation should be conducted on the competitors of the smart home control systems. It is necessary to evaluate how the new product differs as compared to the competitors’ products. Furthermore, test the new product with focus groups to determine their feedback to the promotions. The use of other marketing platforms to advertise the control system is vital. For example, the use of online promotions on social media like Facebook and twitter, using television spots, the use of out of home advertising is also necessary. The use of website is the most efficient way of advertising because the word today depends on technology. Most people use the internet, a visitor may land into the smart home website, and they will be able to learn more about the new product. It is also necessary to create a public relation program where the press is allowed to review the product, then writing articles to send to the public media, providing interviews to the smart homeowners and allowing them to provide detailed information about the new product. It is also important to hold a launch event. During the launch event, many opportunities are available to present the product to target market. This will bring about brand awareness and people may be interested to purchase the product. Additionally, to evaluate the readiness of the launch to ensure that the timing is coordinated and the product is readily available after its announcement. Also, the smart home control owners should create a marketing plan tracker that will aid in doing regular follow-ups to ensure that all involved persons is informed on the